Essay about Rhetorical Reading - 1040 Words

Rhetorical Reading Essay(Revision) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Since they started pouring the concrete for the dam Lake Powell has been a center of controversy. From nature preservationists to ancient ruins advocates the subject has been heated and intense. On the other hand, those who support Lake Powell are just as avid and active in their defense of the reservoir. One of the former, Edward Abbey, sets forth his plea, hoping it does not fall upon deaf ears. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Abbey attempts in his article to help the reader visualize Glen Canyon before it was dammed up. He uses a lot of pathos to help the reader â€Å"feel† the beauty of the previous Glen Canyon and the ugliness of the present. His article seems to be†¦show more content†¦These effects are perfectly normal when working with a reservoir and as he points out are not permanent. â€Å"Sodden garbage strewn about, dead trees, sunken boats, the skeletons of long-forgotten, decomposing water-skiers;†(147) These are all attempts to bring the reservoir in a negative light but these do not come from the reservoir but from careless patrons and the inevitable accidents. If the number of people who visited Lake Powell visited the former Glen Canyon area, the garbage and deaths and other negative aspects would be at the same ratio because some humans are simply careless and draining a reservoir is not going to change that. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Often times Abbey tries to appeal to our emotions through connotation and metaphors by creating a picture perfect image of what Glen Canyons used to be like with its varied flora and fauna and beautiful landscape. Unfortunately this attempt is flawed because anyone who has ever been to Lake Powell or seen pictures knows that it is equally as beautiful as and maybe even more so than the common river and surrounding landscape scene. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Abbey employs a great use of sentence structure and connotations when refuting the claim that Lake Powell is the most beautiful reservoir in the world. â€Å"Certainly it has a photogenic backdrop of buttes and mesas, projecting above the expansive surface of stagnant waters where the speedboats, houseboats and cabin cruisers play. ButShow MoreRelatedRhetorical Reading1052 Words   |  5 PagesJoshua Stonehocker Steven Gibson English 1010 046 March 28th, 2005 Rhetorical Reading Essay(Revision) Since they started pouring the concrete for the dam Lake Powell has been a center of controversy. From nature preservationists to ancient ruins advocates the subject has been heated and intense. On the other hand, those who support Lake Powell are just as avid and active in their defense of the reservoir. One of the former, Edward Abbey, sets forth his plea, hoping it does not fall uponRead MoreRhetorical Reading Strategies And The Construction Of Meaning2041 Words   |  9 PagesIn Christina Haas and Linda Flower’s article â€Å"Rhetorical Reading Strategies and the Construction of Meaning†, they present three different strategies readers use when reading a paper or an article, and the importance of each. An experiment was constructed to show those strategies in action, and what each type of reader does while using the strategies. Beginner readers used content strategies, where they tried to grasp the basics of the article, or were â€Å"concerned with content or topic information†Read MoreIndividual Rhetorical Analysis Of The Selected Readings2297 Words   |  10 PagesIndividual rhetorical analysis of the selected readings by Olaudah Equiano, Harriet Jacobs, Frederick Douglass, and Harriet Beecher Stowe are necessary to arrive at a collective analysis of the most effective strategies. Olaudah Equiano’s â€Å"The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavas Vassa, the African† was first published in 1789 in London, England (687). Equiano’s narrative is informative; however, it is critical of the treatment of slaves and persuasive in its appeals toRead MoreThe Process Of Close Reading While Using Rhetorical Analysis Essay1864 Words   |  8 PagesThe Process of Close Reading While Using Rhetorical Analysis Introduction to Close Reading Rhetorical Analysis The close reading process of a rhetorical analysis includes breaking down an essay into different parts in order to create a certain affect towards the reader. In the article, â€Å"Should Writer’s Use They Own,† Young uses diverse language to address the idea of code meshing. Young’s rhetorical appeal in the article intersect with my reading experiences by creating a difficult read, that makesRead More Rhetorical Analysis of Reading in a Whole New Way by Kevin Kelly657 Words   |  3 Pages Rhetorical Analysis of â€Å"Reading in a Whole New Way† In â€Å"Reading in a Whole New Way,† Kevin Kelly points out that digital screen illuminate our lives. He emphasizes that digital screens has changed the way that we look at the world. Kelly is trying to persuade his audience that in today’s society we rely heavily on technology. He outlines how the act of reading has changed. Kelly rhetorical choices help him persuade the audience that digital screens are becoming something people depend on. â€Å"ReadingRead MoreEssay about Grief from a Cross-Cultural Perspective1573 Words   |  7 Pagesof the stream of consciousness, El-Madini uses a variety rhetorical devices including: paradox and epiplexis. In addition to rhetorical devices, El-Madini also stylizes his text through the use of invited reading. Through the use of those literary techniques, El-Madini expects the reader to infer that this type of speech and perspective is typical of those suffering grievance or loss. The opening poem is an example of El-Madini’s rhetorical devices at work. The last two lines, â€Å"I have been lookingRead MoreEssay in Spanish1473 Words   |  6 Pagesconstantly questions what he has said before while contradicting the statements. 4. What is the rhetorical effect of the similes in paragraph 2? Initially Henry Thoreau starts of his second paragraph with a number of similes which bring a somewhat contrast into his writing. The examples of such similes are still we live meanly, like ants or like pygmies we fight with cranes. Can it be the rhetorical transaction which is present in the writing? The author most likely will be appealing to logosRead MoreThe Philosophy Of Crime And Punishment1182 Words   |  5 Pagesbecome increasingly confusing to interpret. Dostoyevsky, through Crime and Punishment, intends to stylistically relay to readers that tangled strings or contrasting motives breed conflicting actions using the following literary devices: Charactonym, rhetorical questioning, and juxtaposition. Dostoyevsky assembles Raskolnikov s strings through charactonym. Charactonym according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary is â€Å"a name†¦ that suggests a distinctive trait of the character.† In Crime and Punishment, DostoyevskyRead MoreFocusing on the Unnecessary Details of Life Essay1190 Words   |  5 Pagescherish the individual; in order to do so, the trivial details must be left alone. According to Thoreau, â€Å"After a night’s sleep the news is as indispensable as breakfast†¦And I am sure that I never read any memorable news in a newspaper.† Because reading or, in the modern era, watching the news has turned into a habit, many people have incorporated it into their daily routine along with eating breakfast. Habits are extremely hard to break. Many people tend to bite their nails when they’re nervous;Read MoreEssay on Analysis of a Leaflet801 Words   |  4 Pagesinterested and are not forced to read a heavy text. o Direct language is featured in the leaflet (e.g. â€Å"You† and â€Å"Are you Magistrate Material?) to address the reader and engage their attention. Rhetorical questions have also been used for the same purpose. Rhetorical questions introduce each individual section and keep the readers attention focused on the question that is relevant in the specific section. o The language used is plain and simple to appeal to the

Ethical Decision Making Process Essay - 1085 Words

Ethical Decision-Making Paul comes to an agency with many difficulties and anxieties, one which is his antipathy toward interracial marriage. He expresses disappointment in his daughter and in himself as a father because of her engagement to a man of another race. Paul has gone as far as threatening to disinherit her if she marries this man. What the client does not know is that the social worker is in an interracial marriage as well. The therapist says she is willing to work with him but discloses that she herself is in an interracial marriage. During the initial interview with the client the therapist expresses that she her self is in an interracial relationship. The correspondence between an individual’s values and the values of an†¦show more content†¦The moral principles of autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence, justice, fidelity and veracity one of these needs to be applied to this situation. Autonomy gives Paul the ability to think independently. He knows he does not like interracial marriages however he still feels that he is a failure as a father due to his daughter’s judgment. First Paul needs to understand that the decision that his daughters make has no apparent effect on him as a father and that his daughter is old enough to make choices on her own. Paul also needs to know that by threaten to disown his daughter will hurt him as a father and hurt her as a daughter which constitutes the nonmaleficence of this dilemma. As the therapist responsibility still remains with the client. Paul needs to know that the therapist will prove him help to the best of her interest. She will help him to may be overcome his disappointment or be at ease with the dilemma. The fourth step is to generate courses of action. As the session goes on the therapist would ask what particular besides the color of his daughters soon to be fiancà © What else does he not like about him? Also some questions such as: did you get to know your daughter’s fiancà ©? What do you like and dislike about him not pertaining to color? Why do you feel you failed as father? Do you feel that your relationship with your daughter is bad or good? The therapist would try to get the most out of Paul based on the relationship that he has hadShow MoreRelatedThe Ethical Decision Making Process1253 Words   |  6 PagesThe ethical decision making process is based on moral rules and unchanging principles that are derived from reason and can be applied universally. These universal rules and principles must be considered separate from the consequences or the facts of a particular situation. (McWay, 2014). Health care workers face ethical issues and have to use the ethical decision making process to determine what is best for their patients. The first ethical issue will be right to life and abortion. AbortionRead MoreThe Ethical Decision Making Process943 Words   |  4 PagesWe face ethical decisions almost every day in our lives. Having strong ethics will help us decide what is right and wrong, especially when we face serious dilemmas just like in the case, It’s All in the Family. Applying the ethical decision-making process to this scenario will help me decide what approach I should take if I was in this situation. The first step in the ethical decision-making process is determining the facts of the problem. Knowing all the facts of the situation and making an effortRead MoreThe Ethical Decision Making Process2474 Words   |  10 Pages Ethical Decision Making Process Ayva Rodriguez Felician College NURS 380 Elizabeth Stallings RN, MA, DMH January 22, 2015 Abstract Nurses often encountered various ethical dilemmas in the practice setting. Both virtue ethics and caring ethics support good ethical decision making for nurses (Park, 2012, p. 149) but these are inadequate to assist in solving an ethical dilemma (Park, 2012, p. 149). For that reason an ethical decision making tool is helpful for the nurses or clinicians to comeRead MoreEthical Decision-Making in the Military Decision-Making Process5155 Words   |  21 PagesEthical Decision-Making in the Military Decision-Making Process Contribution to the JSCOPE 2000 Conference â€Å"Moral Considerations in Military Decision Making†. Dr. D. (Desiree) Verweij Lieutenant Colonel G.A.A.M. (Gà ©rard) Cloà ¯n (drs.) Major E.C. (Erhan) Tanercan MED (drs.) E-mail: ilmo@army.disp.mindef.nl Tel: +31 76 527 46 53 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting +31 76 527 46 53 end_of_the_skype_highlighting Introduction A great deal hasRead MoreEthical Framework : Decision Making Process Essay1537 Words   |  7 PagesEthical Framework to Decision-making Process Slide 2: Introduction All employees (including the company executives) should be guided by moral principles and ethical values when making decisions (Balc Simionescu, 2012). The ability of executives to make ethical decisions can be influenced by their cognitive bias (Zeni, Buckley, Mumford Griffith, 2015). Utilitarianism is one of the frameworks that can be used to address ethical dilemmas. Utilitarianism holds that decision makers should take alternativesRead MoreNursing Process : Ethical Decision Making1879 Words   |  8 PagesNursing Process Approach to Ethical Decision Making A career in nursing is a challenging one. There is a high demand for physical strength when working a long, twelve-hour shift, and an even higher demand for emotional strength when communicating with clients and family members alike. In both cases, the best asset a nurse has available is the ability to think critically. The nurse is constantly applying themselves in therapeutic ways in order to help deliver the best possible evidence-based outcomesRead MoreSystematic Process For Ethical Decision Making2090 Words   |  9 PagesI return to week 2 of this course and my systematic process for ethical decision making. I would first â€Å"maintain control† of myself and think. Then analyze the situation and all the fact before deciding on an action to take. Maintain control means to not overreact and to remain calm. Maintain control also means to clarify the facts and rely on my past experiences and education to make a decision on what to do or say next to Marcie. Note: this would have been thought through before going toRead MoreEthical Issues : Aclu On The Decision Making Process1943 Words   |  8 Pages Ethical Issues : ACLU When researching the decision-making processes in which organizations encounter, from large fortune 500 companies to small private businesses, organizational culture has a major emphasis on the decision-making process. According to Kurtz, during the decision-making process and everyday operations of a organization, many ethical decisions which would be unacceptable in our society are deemed to be acceptable problem solving tactics (Kurtz, 2003). Our ethical decision-makingRead MoreCase Study : Ethical Decision Making Process Essay2104 Words   |  9 PagesSection 4- Ethical decision making process: 1. Explain the ethical decision making process: To make an ethical decision, it is necessary to perceive and eliminate immoral options and select the best and ethical alternative. It is a process of choosing the best ethical option among the alternatives. For moral decision making process, some requirements should be followed: Commitment: Make commitment to do the right thing regardless any cost. Consciousness: Awareness about the action takes placeRead MoreThe Four Steps Ethical Analysis And Decision Making Process Essay1662 Words   |  7 Pagesan Ethical Dilemma 2 Solution: - 2 Question 2: Complete the four steps Ethical Analysis and Decision Making Process: - 2 Step- I Understand the situation 2 Facts 2 Ethical issues 3 Stakeholders 3 Step- II Isolate the Major Ethical Dilemma 3 Step-III Ethical analysis 4 Consequentialism 4 Comments 4 Rights and duties: - 4 Comments 4 Kant’s Categorical Imperative 4 Discussion 5 Step- IV Making a decision 5 References 5 Question 1. IS there an Ethical Dilemma Solution: - There is ethical dilemma

Connective Tissue Free Essays

Connective Tissue Characteristics of connective tissues †¢Extracellular matrix separates cells †¢Most widely variable of tissues †¢Many varied functions †¢Common (mesenchyme) origin †¢Degrees of vascularity Functions †¢Binding †¢Suport †¢Protection †¢Insulation †¢Transport Structural Elements †¢Fibers ?Collagen (white) fibres ?Elastin (yellow) fibers ?Reticular fibers †¢Ground substance ?Amorphous material fills space between cells and contains fibers ?Holds fluids ?Acts as molecular sieve ?Consists of interstitial fluid, cell adhesion proteins â€Å"glue†, proteoglycans †¢Cells Each class of connective tissue has a fundamental cell type that exists in an immature and mature form ?Undifferentiated cell gets suffix â€Å"blast† i. e chronoblast, they are actively mitotic, secrete fibers and ground subtance ?Once the cells synthesise the matrix they assume their less active mature mode indicated by suffix â €Å"cyte† i. e. We will write a custom essay sample on Connective Tissue or any similar topic only for you Order Now lymphocyte Summary Fibers Ground Substance Cells Collagen Interstitial fluid Immature form â€Å"blast† Elastin Cell adhesion proteins â€Å"glue† Mature form â€Å"cyte† Reticular Proteoglycans Types of connective tissue †¢All consist of cells surrounded by matrix Differences reflect cell type, finer type and the proportion of matrix contributed by fivers †¢These differences determine connective tissue classes and their subgroups ?General (fibrous) connective tissue â€Å"proper† ?Specialised Connective tissues (skeletal – bone and cartilage, adipose, lymphoid, blood) Cells found in ‘Prototype’ Connective Tissue †¢FIbroblasts †¢Adipocytes (fat cells) †¢Cells which migrate from blood ?WBC ?Other cells concerned with tissue response to injury Connective Tissue Proper Two subgroups – classification mainly based on finer arrangement and density: †¢Loose CT Areolar ?Reticular †¢Dense CT ?Dense regu lar ?Dense irregular Connective Tissue Proper Sub groups Characteristics/Structural elements Loose Areolar Semi fluid Gelatinous ground substance Collagen, elastin, reticular loosely distributed Fibroblasts and macrophages are abundant Occasional adipocytes (fat cells) Widely distributed packing material of body Loose Reticular Matrix contains reticular fibers Reticular fibers form network of reticular cells (fibroblasts) Dense Regular Closely packed collagen fibers orientated in same direction Mainly fibroblasts Poorly vascularised (no blood vessels) White, flexible tissue with great tensile strength in one direction Wavy fivers – allow minimal ‘give’ until fibbers are straightened Elastic CT has high elastic content i. e. ligaments and tendons Dense Irregular Closely packed collagen fibers orientated in same direction Mainly fibroblasts Poorly vascularised (no blood vessels) Collagen bundles are orientated in MANY directions Forms sheets where tension is exerted in from many directions i. e. dermis of skin, fibrous joint capsules, fibrous capsules of many organs (kidneys, testis, bone, muscles) Blood †¢Classified as a connective tissue †¢Cells in matrix (plasma) Fibers are soluble proteins which only become visible during clotting †¢Functions ?Transport of nutrients (glucose, oxygen) ?Transport of wastes (CO2) ?Transport of gases (oxygen, CO2) ?Hormones Cartilage †¢Somewhere between dense CT and bone †¢Tough but flexible †¢Cartilage cells â€Å"chondro† prefix †¢Groun d substance has firmly bound collagen fivers †¢Contains lots of tissue fluid (80% water) †¢No blood vessels or nerves (good for joints) †¢Perichondrium (dense irreg. CT) surrounds most cartilage †¢Growth both interstitial and appositional †¢Types: ?Hyaline ?Elastic ?Fibrocartilage Bone â€Å"Bone† can refer to: Osseous tissue (type of CT) †¢Organs of the body i. e. humerus (consisting of several tissue types) Bone as a tissue †¢Bone is connective tissue (osseous tissue) †¢Cells contained in a matrix †¢Matrix is hardened by deposition of calcium salts and other minerals = calcification (mineralisation) Functions of bony skeleton †¢Support †¢Protection †¢Rigid attachment †¢Levers for muscles †¢Blood formation †¢Electrolyte balance †¢Acid base balance †¢Detoxification General features of long bone †¢Compact bone †¢Spongy bone †¢Medullary cavity †¢Diaphysis (shaft) †¢Epip hysis †¢Epiphysis plate/line †¢Articular cartilage †¢Periosteum and endosteum How to cite Connective Tissue, Papers

I am One of You Forever Essay Example For Students

I am One of You Forever Essay Luden SorrellsWhat is it about the smell of whisky that soothes a mans soul? Recently I went to visit my family, the Roberts, in the mountains of North Carolina. The first thing I did when I stepped out of the car was try and smell that glorious aroma. My name is Luden Sorrells. Better known back home as Uncle Luden. I have what some might call a monarch reputation as a drinking man. I moved away from home at the age of sixteen and headed toward California on my motorcycle. Although Ive been there for years, the scenery just doesnt compare to my hometown. I find myself missing home oftentimes but, living with a controlling mother wasnt always that easy. Once settling in California I became a bit of a ladys man, but it got me in trouble every now and then. My life is full of adventures and unfortunately alcohol tends to be a part of them. I know that it hurts my mother to see me struggling with alcohol. While at home visiting I stayed out drinking some good ole whisky one night. At the time it was fun, but when I got back to the Roberts house I wasnt feeling so good about it. So I set up my dolls in a line of twelve and shot each one. After shooting them I recited the twelve steps from alcoholics anonymous. The whole time my momma was watching from the porch. I felt just awful that I had made her cry and I apologized to her for being drunk again. She was understanding, but she wasnt always so easy to get along with. When I was a boy, she was a little controlling at times. She ran the farm and had me working it for her. I never liked the farm life much. That is why I took off the first chance I got to California. I got a real job making cash money. Every once in awhile I would send a check out to my momma. I felt bad for leaving her behind on the farm. I thought I might be able to help in some way, even though I wasnt there. When I moved out to California is when my drinking started becoming more and more of a problem. I started meeting all these beautiful ladies. Most of them had boyfriends or husbands, but it didnt really bother me all that much. Cora, my sister, had to come help me out on occasion. Between all the ladies and the alcohol, I got in over my head. I was thankful for my sisters help. I ended up having three wives. As much as I love women, they aint nothing but trouble. A man would have to drink a little whiskey to deal with them. No matter what I do or where I go they can smell me coming. My brother-in-law, Joe Roberts, says that I must give off some sort of musk-odor that menfolks cant smell. It was good to go home and visit my family. California is great but I missed being home sometimes. They have mountains in California, but not like the ones in North Carolina. It just wasnt the same. Theres nothing like eating fried chicken and rhubarb pie on top of Ember Mountain. While at home, in the Appalachians, I took my family on a picnic to that very place. Cora fixed up all kinds of good stuff to eat and I brought along a bottle of wine from Sonoma. I even let my nephew Jess have a sip. He seemed to have enjoyed it.

Critical Analysis Of A Midsummer Nights Dream Essays -

Critical Analysis Of A Midsummer Night's Dream William Shakespeare, born in 1594, is one of the greatest writers in literature. He dies in 1616 after completing many sonnets and plays. One of which is A Midsummer Nights Dream. They say that this play is the most purely romantic of Shakespeares comedies. The themes of the play are dreams and reality, love and magic. This extraordinary play is a play-with-in-a-play, which master writers only write successfully. Shakespeare proves here to be a master writer. Critics find it a task to explain the intricateness of the play, audiences find it very pleasing to read and watch. A Midsummer Nights Dream is a comedy combining elements of love, fairies, magic, and dreams. This play is a comedy about five couples who suffer through loves strange games and the evil behind the devious tricks. This play begins as Theseus, the Duke, is preparing to marry Hippolyta. He woos her with his sword. Hermia is in love with Lysander. Egeus, Hermias father, forbids the relationship with Lysander and orders her to marry Demetrius. Demetrius loves Hermia, but she does not love him. On the other hand, Helena is in love with Demetrius. To settle the confusion, Theseus decides that Hermia must marry Demetrius or become a nun. In retaliation to her fathers command, Hermia and Lysander run away together. Amidst all the problems in the human world, Titania and Oberon, the fairy queen and king, continually argue about their various relationships that they have taken part in. (Scott 336) Titania leaves Oberon as a result of the arguments. Oberon is hurt and wants revenge on Titania. So he tells Puck, Oberons servant, to put a magic flower juice on her eyelids while she is sleeping. This potion causes the victim to desperately in love with the first creature that they see. Oberons plan is carried out, but the potion is also placed on Lysanders eyes. Lysander awakes to see Helena, who is aimlessly walking through the woods, and instantly falls in love with her. She thinks that he is making fun o f her being in love with Demetrius, so she leaves and Lysander follows. This leaves Hermia to wake up alone. Puck now has journeyed to the area where several actors are rehearsing. He uses his magic to turn one of them into a donkey, in hopes that Titania will awake to see it. Just as planned, she awakes and falls in love with the donkey. Oberon and Puck overhear Demetrius and Hermia arguing about their relationships and realize that they had made a mistake. In hopes of solving the problem, Puck places magic juice on Demetrius while he is sleeping. He awakes to Helena, who now has two men in love with her. Hermia is devastated because Lysander does not love her anymore. Helena and Hermia argue because Helena thinks that Hermia is in on the mens joke. All four argue and leave. Puck persuades them to sleep all together and more of the antidote is placed on the eyes of Lysander. Titania also receives another dose of the potion, and awakes to her husband Oberon. A triple wedding is plan ned and everyone is happy. (thinkquest.com 1-3) Throughout the play there are many references to the gender and sex roles of the characters. As described in the critical essay by Shirley Nelson Garner, the dominating male power and strange sex roles of the characters is fluent throughout the play. The ordering of the fairy, human, and natural worlds is a movement toward satisfying mens psychological needs; but it also disrupts womens bonds with each other. The argument between Titania and Oberon arises from Titanias focus of attention toward a stolen Indian boy. Oberon uses his authority to force Titania to give up the boy, and he is shocked when she disobeys him and leaves. Her attachment to the boy is erotic, because she treats him similar to Bottom after she falls in love with him by a spell. The underlying reason for Oberons complaint of Titania and the boys relationship is that he secretly wants the boy for himself. Oberon takes action because his power is threatened by Titania s love for the boy. He needs her

Hitlers Killing Factories essays

Hitlers Killing Factories essays Hitlers rise to power following World War I was nothing short of mercurial. He was able to rise to this position of dominance by offering Germans a chance to shed the fetters imposed upon them by the Treaty of Versailles. As a master of rhetoric and deception he was able to place the blame for the loss of World War One on the subversive forces within Germany. Number one on this list of subversives were the Jews. Through propaganda in support of nationalism and social Darwinism he made it obvious that Germany must rid itself of negative forces that reduced the purity of the master race. In this way the Jews became scapegoats of Germanys decline and decay socially, politically and militarily. The leaders of the Riech deemed it neccessary to remove the blemish on their pure society, covertly at first and then successively in a more principled and well orchestrated program of genocidal activity, known to them as the Final Solution. Hitlers idea to eradicate the Jews was conceived long before he became Chancellor in 1933. Murdering an entire people was a daunting, but for Hitler, a necessary task designed for the restoration of Germany and the master race. The logistics and economics behind the plan of mass genocide required the investment of excessive amounts of time, labour and money. Despite the high cost of the operation Nazi leaders felt the solution must be imposed in order to cleanse the Fatherland. Social restrictions, exclusion and alienation were the first of the progressive steps taken to disenfranchise German Jewry. In the face of the threats of an escalating war in the east and the entry of the United States into the global conflict following Pearl Harbor, the answer to the Jewish question became increasingly imminent as Hitler felt he no loner needed to shroud his intentions. The Final Solution was the vision of Adolph Hitler, but its architects were Reichsfuhrer SS Heinrich Himmler...

Developing Personal Management Skills Assignment

Developing Personal Management Skills - Assignment Example Like any other business, organizations have little or no interest on good management and emphasize on exciting and glamorous work of leadership. Nevertheless, managers are subjects for good performance. Generally, managers should translate their leadership skills to high productivity and good governance. Whereas leaders bring forth vision, motivation and challenge, all these things are in vain if there is no effective implementation as a result of good management. Essentially, a good manager should be equipped with vast skills, ranging from planning, communication, and delegation to motivation. Since there are several management skills required for proper management, it is very tricky to build skills in areas you are not comfortable. Leaders have different management skills, and their applications vary (Mcgrath, 2009). However, for good results and long-term success, it is worth analyzing your personal managerial skills, knowing your strengths and weaknesses and capitalizing on your best management skills. As if this is not enough, pose a challenge to your to improve in your weakest points. This helps you to identify your strong and weak areas, take advantage of past and manage the latter (Hannaway & Gabriel , 2005). Communication is a very crucial tool in the management. In any organization, you have to communicate with your workmates, seniors, juniors and the stakeholders. This tool has given me confidence in place of work and build a lot of trusts. As long as I know what am talking about, worries have no place. It implies that as I communicate with staff, I should have substance so that they can listen to me. Likewise, as they pass information, they should have a clear conscience of what they want to pass across. Communication is a very critical skill for managers. For a number of years, employe es in one of the organizations, I once worked went for a strike because of reshuffling their supervisors. Essentially, there was a  need to make changes, but most of them were unwilling. When I joined as one of the managers, the tension was all over. I took some time to study the organizational structure and the entire set up, and I realized there was need indeed to reshuffle.  

Media Technology Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Media Technology Management - Assignment Example .8V-unbuffered-non-ECC, Operating System – Windows Vista Business (SP1), Graphics card – Inno3D nVIDIA GeForce 9800GT Graphics Card - 1GB GDDR3 - PCI-E - 256-Bit - Dual DVI - Memory clock - HDCP - HDTV, Hard drive – Seagate OEM 500GB Barracuda 7200.12 Internal Hard Disk Drive (7200RPM, SATA, 32MB Cache), Monitor – LCD Samsung T220HD 22-inch Widescreen LCD TFT Monitor, 2ms, Rose Black, 10000:1, TV Tuner. As far as the software for audio editing, video editing and authoring is concerned, Vegas Pro 8 of Sony Creative Software would suit both our needs and the pocket. Now entering into the cost part, the PC computer costs totally -  £ 913.07 and the Vegas Pro 8 software costs  £524.34. So the total expenditure for the computer and software bundle would be -  £1437.41 (including VAT). External hard drive which we employ here for archiving work is of the following specification – 500 GB space & USB2.0 compliant. This is a product of G-Tech, and we use them because they are one among the leaders in external hard drive manufacturers. The model is G-Drive FW400, and it costs  £113.25 The duplicator that we use is, Copystars CD DVD Duplicator. It’s specifications are – 115/230v switchable with AC Adaptor power cord and ready to use duplication tower. It has been chosen because it has the capability to duplicate dual layer and various formats of discs, it can also name hard drives, count discs, perform error and data integrity checks etc. They are also very user friendly as they use smart DVD duplicator technology. It will cost  £250 We have gone for an - All-in-One Multifunction Scanner and CD/DVD Printer as it saves considerable amount of money. We are employing a Hewlett Packard’s product of the following specification: Print technology – Thermal Inkjet, Print speed – 32 ppm, Maximum scan size – 216 x 297 mm, Scan speed – 10 x 15 cm color photo into Microsoft Word less than 22 sec, Scan Technology - Contact Image Sensor (CIS), Model Number –

An overview of YouTube Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

An overview of YouTube - Essay Example An overview of YouTube â€Å"YouTube was founded by three former PayPal employees, who, witnessing the boom of online grassroots video, realized the need for a decent service that made the process of uploading, watching and sharing videos hassle-free† (Yadav). It was on February 15, 2005 that they registered the domain YouTube. In the initial periods YouTube came out with many contests in order to publicize the domain. The major target of YouTube was teenagers and college students. They offered attractive gifts for the winners of the contest. This created more traffic in the website. A person can watch the videos in YouTube even without registering. But if he intends to upload a video into YouTube, he should at first create an account with it. Both signing up process and uploading video are made simpler than what was during the initial stages. YouTube uses Adobe flash technology for enabling the videos to be watched on the internet. YouTube and Web 2.0: Web 2.0 is referred to as the network of websites that are used regularly by ordinary users. The ordinary users of the web are referred to the students, hobbyists, diarists etc. The ordinary users express themselves through their avatar in various social networking sites and blogs. â€Å"You can visualize Web 2.0 as a set of principles and practices that tie together a veritable solar system of sites that demonstrate some or all of those principles, at a varying distance from that core† (Tim). Thus they look for an opportunity to express them through internet.

Benefits of Subtitles in English Learning

Benefits of Subtitles in English Learning CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background All through the years, there has been an increasing emphasis on teaching English as an instrument for communication, and technology has played a critical function in facilitating authentic communication. The movement of language teaching objectives and practices has changed from the printed word and knowledge of language systems to the use and communicative value of the spoken language in the everyday setting (Vanderplank, 1993). In a sense, the efficacy of multimedia has drawn great consideration and is presumed, under the theory of adding an additional channel of media to send out a message, to significantly improve communication and comprehension (Dwyer, 1978). Multimedia technology (like TV, computers, networks, emails video cassette recorders (VCRS), compact disc ready-only memories (CD-ROMs) and interactive multimedia) aids the teaching technique of integrating real-life situations with the target language into the language classroom. In this meticulous setting, learners slowly expand their language acquisition by being exposed to the authentic environment of the target language. According to one of the most outstanding theories of second language acquisition, Krashen (1985) proposed that learners can learn a large amount of language unconsciously through ample comprehensible input. The Input Hypothesis, stated by Krashen, argues that the use of a target language in real communicative environments and the stress on rich comprehensible input by exposing the learners to the target language in the classroom facilitate their language acquisition. In other words, language acquisition only happens when comprehensible input is suitably delivered. In this respect, language teachers struggle to employ a wide range of teaching techniques to make authentic situations and to promote learners language acquisition. Many researchers have presented strong evidence that multimedia (like computers, video, and TV) have helpful effects on language learning due to rich and authentic comprehensible input (Brett, 1995; Egbert Jessup, 1996; Khalid, 2001). Results of these studies demonstrated the significance of the use of multimedia develops learners language performance in reading, listening comprehension and vocabulary recognition. One survey study by the American Association of School Administrators showed that 94 percent of teachers and supervisors believe that technology has enhanced students learning considerably. Similarly, many English-as-a-Second Language (ESL) teachers concur that educational technology presents many possibilities for progressing students language proficiency, including their vocabulary, reading, listening, and speaking. Similarly, television programs and videos have created a place in the communication of information and are powerful apparatus in improving language teaching (Anderson Lorch, 1983). Both TV and videos communicate not only visually through pictures but also aurally throughout the spoken word, music and sound effects. The subtitle, a key role on television and videotapes, is coordinated with the dialogue or narration of the programs audio track, expanding comprehension and understanding of TV programs and videos. Lambert, Boehler and Sidoti (1981) have asserted that the constant general movement indicates that information coming through two input types (e.g., dialogue and subtitles) is more systematically processed than if either dialogue or subtitles are presented alone. This result is in agreement with the dual-coding theory by Allan Paivio (1971), sustaining the usefulness of multiple-channel communication. In the same way, Hartmans (1961a) findings support the between-channel redun dancy theory which suggested that when information is redundant between two input sources (e.g., dialog and subtitles), comprehension will be superior than when the information is coming through one input form, (e.g., dialog). He also gave a description of redundant information as identical information from the visual and verbal stimuli. In this respect, Hartman completed that the benefit of the multiple-channel learning system is this: information coming from two information sources is more comprehensible than that through one. Information input through different sensory channels supplies receivers with additional stimuli reinforcement to guarantee that more complete learning happens. More explicitly, the additional stimuli reinforcement helps out learners in systematizing and structuring the incoming information. However, a contrasting theory, the single channel theory proposed by Broadbent (1958), states that human can only process information throughout one channel at a time. This theory assumes that the decline of learning takes place if the information is received through two or more sources. The learning is delayed when the multiple-channel presentation of information is used in the teaching-learning process. Along with this contentious viewpoint between the single and the multiple-channel presentation, an awareness of and interest in the use of multimedia resources have been increasing, like the presentation of subtitled materials. Today, language learning has turned out to be more available by implementing multimedia with spoken information and full visual context, such as subtitles. For instance, subtitled videos representing words and pictures in an aural and in a visual form are more probable to activate both coding systems in the processing than words or pictures alone. The dual-coding theory proposed by Paivio (1971) suggests that when pictures are added to the meaning, the number of signals connected with the message increases. Viewers then will be more probable to keep the message in mind. Therefore, the results of the past research appear to sustain the aspect that the use of subtitles causes multi-sensory processing, interacting with audio, video and print mechanisms. These information input foundations get the process of language learning better, improve the comprehension of the content, and increase vocabulary by looking at the subtitled words in meaningful and stimulating circumstances. In addition , a lot of teachers consider subtitles shed some new light on a better way of using various multimedia in the ESL classroom. When subtitled technology appeared more than 15 years ago, many educators quickly saw value in exploiting its potential in helping students process language in a different way and effectively by means of the printed word. (Goldman, 1996; Holobow, Lambert, Sayegh, 1984; Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, Neuman, 1993; Parks, 1994; Vanderplank, 1993). 1.1.1 Subtitle Subtitles, which are English written subtitles on instructional English-as-second-language (ESL) videos in this study, are the written version of the audio constituent that permits dialogue, music, narration and sound effects to be shown at the bottom of the screen on most televisions. There are two kinds of subtitles explained in general terms: the open subtitle and the closed subtitle. Closed subtitles refer to the subtitles that are not automatically visible to the viewer; however can be viewed by turning on through use of a remote control or an electronic subtitle decoder. By contrast, open subtitles are visible to all viewers without turning them on with a remote control. Subtitling is not only the main function of the TV but a positive function of video tapes. Video tapes offer subtitling by those who specialize in computer workstations. To make subtitles visible, an electronic subtitle decoder is obligatory, that is easily attached to a television set. Although it is not avail able in some areas of the world, subtitling technology is broadly accessible and draws great attention in the United States. In 1990, the U. S. Congress passed the Television Decoder Circuitry Act requiring that all new televisions, thirteen inches or larger, be prepared with subtitle decoder circuitry. The function of the decoder circuitry is to receive, decode, and show closed subtitles from cable, DVD signals and videotape appropriately. With reference to this regulation, the consumer is no longer required to pay for a separate decoder, when in possession of an applicable TV set. Therefore, thousands of people in the U.S. have access to subtitles without any trouble by pushing the button on the remote controls (National Subtitleing Institute, 1989). However, available access of subtitles on foreign film videos is still restricted in other countries, such as Taiwan and Japan, where external subtitle decoders are necessary for viewing. Subtitleing was devised initially for the hearing impaired. The statistics on the number of decoders sold confirm that more than half were bought for the hearing impaired who assert that decoders are helpful to them. Increasingly, the use of subtitles has also augmented among the non-native speakers who are motivated to improve their language learning. A study by Hofmeister, Menlove, and Thorkildsen (1992) discovered that 40 percent of people other than the hearing impaired buy the decoders, such as foreign students. To be explicit, the motive for this phenomenon is that subtitles show words in a motivating atmosphere where the audio, video and print media help viewers comprehend the unknown words and meanings in their context. However, subtitles have a great impact on comprehension improvement of specific TV programs and improve English language learning progressively. For the benefits of the multimedia approach, ESL programs began to incorporate subtitled materials into the curricula to help ESL students language learning. The focus on teaching techniques and on means of optimizing students comprehension of the second language has been of great concern through this multimedia. Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, and Neuman (1993) stated that the subtitled video is a new and promising approach for improving students vocabulary, reading comprehension, and motivation. Other researches have been conducted to inspect whether subtitled TV and video improve or obstruct students learning. The results have indicated that subtitled TV and videos are helpful for the hearing impaired, ESL students and disabled students (Bean Wilson, 1989; Borras Lafayette, 1994; Ellsworth, 1992; Garza, 1991; Goldman, 1996; Goldman Goldman, 1988; Markham, 1989; Nugent, 1983; Parlato, 1985; Price, 1983; Vanderplank, 1991; Webb, Vanderplank, Parks, 1994; Wilson Koskinen, 1986). Despite a large number of studies suggesting/demonstrating the benefits of the use of subtitles for the hearing-impaired, language learners, and disabled students, similar studies on the use of English subtitles in English teaching are still limited in Iran. Thus, there is great scope for additional examination into the potential use of subtitled television videos to enhance language teaching to English-as-Foreign-Language (EFL) students. The design of this research elaborates mainly on the language learning achievements. This study adds to the aforementioned to investigate the exposure of target language input to students through the presentation subtitled videos. This research focuses on the absence or presence of 10 English subtitled ESL instructional video episodes for a period of five weeks as a primary variable in an experiment to help determine the conditions for the improvement of Iranian college students learning English as a foreign language in Iran. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Many people in Iran have problems when it comes to communicating with foreigners in English. In addition, to get information from the Internet, having a fair amount of English knowledge is required. That makes accessing information a problem for those with limited English language proficiency. In addition, those Iranian students who wish to study abroad, language is the main problem since they have studied in Farsi for all their educational life, and thus adapting to a non-Persian environment is consequently very difficult. Students in Iran, start learning the Basic English at their secondary schools, however the curriculum structure, is based on teaching grammar rather than oral skills; therefore, most students oral communication skills are limited. . Moloney (1995) states that the emergence of English in the global market has resulted in the current ardor for learning English in developing countries. The need for English in Iran is unique. English is not only a required course for Iranian students, but also required and tested as part of major entrance examinations in Iran. These mentioned issues are going to be considered in proposing subtitles in videos and English learning movie solution. 1.3 Objectives of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of subtitled videos in enhancing university students language learning in Iran [English as a foreign language (EFL)]. In the study, the term language learning represents two types of performances. The first is students content comprehension of a particular video episode, as evaluated by a Content Specific Tests (CST) and the second is to investigate the learners vocabulary acquisition. 1.4 Significance of the Study Teachers professional development activities always focus on those types of teaching strategies that help students improve along with their path of learning process. As the research has been designed to discover the effectiveness of presenting subtitles on the movies on vocabulary acquisition and content comprehension, it would be of much significance if confirmed that this strategy works. Generally speaking, it can also been resulted that the finding of this research also could be added to the body of language teaching, learning and use of multimedia technology knowledge. The findings of this study can be share with the curriculum designers, EFL/ ESL teachers for the technology to be implemented in the classroom, materials developers for English teaching 1.5 Hypotheses This study focuses on English language learners performance on the Content-Specific Tests (CST) of vocabulary, and content comprehension of videos with and without subtitles. The researcher tested each of the following null hypotheses as she controls the initial differences of the participants in their general English proficiency. Ho 1: There is no significant difference on the scores of the content comprehension subtest of the CST between subjects watching videos with subtitles and those watching videos without subtitles. Ho 2: There is no significant difference on the scores in the content vocabulary subtest of the CST between subjects watching videos with subtitles and those watching videos without subtitles. 1.6 Research Question 1. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their vocabulary significantly? 2. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their content comprehension significantly? 3. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their English language proficiency significantly? 1.7 Definition of the Terms The definitions are given here to make sure uniformity and understanding of these terms throughout the study. 1.7.1 Subtitle Subtitle is the spoken words designed for the deaf and hearing-impaired people helping them read what they cannot hear. The terms subtitles and subtitles are interchangeably used in this research and are described as the translations of the spoken words to the written with the identical language shown at the bottom of the screen. 1.7.2 Closed Subtitle A subtitle of spoken words viewed by a special decoding device installed in the television set or a special decoder machine. 1.7.3 Open Subtitle A subtitle of spoken words that always is printed at the bottom of the screen. 1.7.4 Content-Specific Test (CST) An instrument designed by the researcher for this study used to measure learners overall comprehension in terms of vocabulary and content comprehension of a particular video segment. The CST includes the two subtests: vocabulary and content comprehension. 1.7.5 Content Vocabulary The vocabulary that comes into sight from the particular video piece viewed by the subjects 1.7.6 Content Comprehension Content comprehension that focuses mainly on the whole story script and test viewers comprehension of the particular information shown in the video 1.8 Limitation of the Study The researcher encountered difficulty in access to the samples of all Iranian population of EFL learners since the country is very huge and the numbers of English learners are so many. It was very hard to control teachers inside-class activities based on the methodologies presented to them. Non-generalizability of the findings to all English learners, especially ESL learners is another which is because the research is conducted in an EFL (Iran) context. The last but not the least limitation is the material choice since there are various types of videos. Therefore, the researcher had to restrict the video to an instructional video, connect with English since it is both with and without subtitle available as well as being suitable for the proficiency level of the participants. 1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter I introduces the foundation for this research, the purpose of the study, and definitions of key terms used throughout the study to diminish potential misunderstanding. Chapter II presents a review of the literature of the use of subtitles. It starts with a theoretical review of the cognitive information processing relevant to the single channel theory and the multiple-channel theory, with focus on the cue-summation theory, the between-channel redundancy theory, the dual-coding theory and the capacity theory. It then keeps on with a discussion of the schemata theory, the Comprehensible Input Hypothesis by Krashen and the ACT Model by Anderson. Subsequently, the relevant major research on subtitles for the hearing-impaired, disabled, normal reading ability, and language learners is offered. Chapter III outlines the method of hypotheses testing formulated in Chapter I. It also includes the research design, followed by a description of the subjects in this study, the treatment materials employed, the testing instruments, the data collection procedure, and the details of the data analysis applied. In Chapter IV, the analyses are performed to reveal the research hypotheses are explained in detail, with the quantitative results of these analyses and an interpretation of the results. The final chapter, Chapter V, summarizes the findings of the study in light of research hypotheses and discusses the performance of the subjects and the results of the analyses shown in Chapter IV. The conclusion interprets the effect of subtitled videos on EFL students language learning in relation to their listening and reading comprehension and their vocabulary. To synthesize the conclusion of this study, pedagogical implications, the limitations of the study and further research are presented. CHAPTER II 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Cognitive Processing Theories In many communities around the world, competence in two, or more, languages is an issue of considerable personal, socio-cultural, economic, and political significance. (Fred Genesee McGill University, WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT BILINGUAL EDUCTION FOR MAJORITY LANGUAGE STUDENTS). Historical documents indicate that individuals and whole communities around the world have been compelled to learn other languages for centuries and they have done so for a variety of reasons such as language contact, colonization, trade, education through a colonial language (e.g., Latin, Greek), intermarriage, among others (Lewis, 1977). The term learning has been considered in different ways by psychologists throughout history. Some behaviorists believe that learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of experience or practice. In addition Iranian students consider the radical-changing world as a situation of globalization that makes them study English as their second language and also a key to main language of scholarship. Thus Iranian government obliged students to start studying courses in English from early primary school through to university over a course of about 7 years. Despite this, reports show poor linguistic results; thus there is a requirement for an in-depth analysis of the teaching methods to understand the reasons for failure. Analyzing the process of effective learning, usually this is divided into two different components, first is individual interest in a topic and the second part is situational interest (Hidi, 1990). Individual interest is said to be the degree to which the learner or the reader is interested in a certain topic, subject area, or any special activity (Prenzel, 1988; Schiefele, 1990). Situational interest is explained as an emotional state aroused by situational stimuli (Anderson, Shirey, Wilson, Fielding, 1987; Hidi, 1990). The literature shows that the individual interest of the reader learner has a positive influence on text comprehension (Anderson, Mason, Shimey, 1984; Asher, 1980; Baldwin, Peleg-Bruckner, McClintock, 1985; Belloni Jongsma, 1978; Bernstein, 1955; Entin Klare, 1985; Osako Anders, 1983; Renninger, 1988; Stevens, 1982). However these researchers defined individual interests as the relatively long-term orientation of an individual towards a type of object, activity, or area of knowledge. This is why exciting tools such as movies seem to have positive effect on learning. (Schiefele, 1987). Schiefele also believes that individual interest is itself a domain-specific or topic-specific motivational characteristic of personality, composed of feeling-related and value-related valences. Then, individual interest is naturally generated by a text that constitutes a feeling of enjoyment or involvement. Individual interest motivates the learner to become involved in reading the specific subject matter. Fransson (1977) indicated that students who were interested in a special topic exhibited and showed deeper processing of a related text. Using free recall and extensive interviews, Fransson found that high-interest subjects made more connections between both different parts of the text and also between what was read and prior knowledge or personal experience. Benware and Deci (1984) and Grolnick and Ryan (1987) arrived at almost the same results, demonstrating that topic-interested We shall also call it intrinsically motivated students exhibited markedly greater conceptual comprehension of text content in contrast with non-interested and extrinsically motivated students. The process of the language learning is seen as a complicate cognitive skill. According to Neisser (1967), cognitive psychology considers that all information passes a process through which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, focused, stored, recovered and used. Gardner and Lambert (1972) are said to be pioneers in the investigation of socio-psychological aspects of second-language learning. They conducted numerous studies on the relationships of attitudes and social-context to the process of learning a second language. They proposed a distinction between these two models: integrative and instrumental motivation. The former is defined as a full identification by the learner with the target-language group and readiness to be identified as part of it. The latter indicates interest in learning L2 only as a tool to procure a better future through social mobility; in this case the learner does not identify with the target-language speakers. However integrative motivation is often considered more likely to lead to success in second language learning than instrumental motivation. Banduras (1986) and Zimmermans (1989). In particular, some of cognitive theorists believe that information-processing theory has the concept of capacity theory within itself. They suggest that the human capacity for learning a language is not regarded as an apart and disconnected from cognitive processes. According to Beck and McKeown (1991), most research on vocabulary leaning has focused on written text, probably because vocabulary research has developed under the umbrella of reading research. Having this fact in mind that arousing interests causes effectives in learning, is supported by a number of studies which have clearly indicated that television programs and movie videos may also be used as a motivational tool to affect teaching techniques in the field of language learning, especially in the area of vocabulary learning. For instance, Rice and Woodsmall (1988) found that children learn words from their first language when watching animated films with voice-over narration. Such learning can be further improved when the films are subtitled, i.e., when voice is accompanied by orthographic information. Schilperoord, Groot, Son (2005). Researches shows that in countries like the Netherlands, where almost 20% of all programs on Dutch public TV and commercial televisions are foreign, learners are provided with opportunities to learn foreign languages, especially since the 1980s, when the teletext was introduced. Similarly, Koolstra and Beentjes (1999) maintain that in the small language communities, a considerable number of television programs are subtitled, causing and creating the possibility of vocabulary acquisition not only in ones first language but also in his foreign languages learning process. Actually, the use of television programs and movie videos for educational purposes is not new. What researchers are interested in is how much learners can learn from films and television programs, and what factors influence the amount and kind of learning and how much. According to Reese Davie (1987 ) to address this concern, researchers have examined features like message structure and format characteristics to identify those which best facilitate learning. Reese Davie report studies which suggest that visual illustrations are most effective when they are accompanied by the script. Looking at socio-cultural factors attitude affecting in success of learning, however the combinations of traits explain the use that the learner makes of the available learning opportunities, all of which affect L2 learning. Wong-Fillmore (1991) indicates three main factors affecting L2 learning: the need to learn the second language, speakers of the target language who provide learners access to the language [cultural openness], the social setting that brings learners and target-language speakers into contact frequently enough that makes language developments possible [social openness, cultural openness, interaction between learners and target-language speakers]. Clement (1980) also places great emphasis on the L2 learners motivation and the cultural milieu. In Clements model, primary motivational process, is defined as the net result of two opposing forces—integrativeness minus fear of assimilation. Integrativeness refers to the desire to become an accepted member of the tar get group; fear of assimilation refers to the fear of becoming completely like the other culture and losing ones native language and culture. Fear of assimilation along with fear of loss of ones native language and heritage may weaken L2 learning motivation, especially in the countries like Iran where people are brightly proud of the history and heritage. Schumann (1986) suggests a model focusing on a cultural aspect of learning that he terms â€Å"acculturation,† that is, integration of the social and the psychological characteristics of learners with those of target-language speakers. Under this heading, he classifies the social and affective factors cluster both as a single variable. According to Schumann, there are two factors in acculturation [social integration psychological openness] namely, sufficient contact and receptiveness between members of target-language and L2-learner groups. There are clearly a number of common features between the above models. They all include the effect of social context attitudes (integrative or instrumental) and acculturation. A problematic social context usually affects L2 learning negatively, especially when the learners are minorities learning L2 as the language of the dominant group like it seems to have the same role with English language as a semi-dominant language of the world especially in contrast with the middle east languages. However, learners awareness of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes a conflict between the minority and the majority. L2 learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993; Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1989). Looking to the movies and TV programs as a motivational tool in learning a language, and based on a justification of the outperformance of students exposed to subtitled video theories are grounded in research either on the single channel theory or on the multiple-channel theories. Multiple-channel theories hold an overview of the cue-summation, the between-channel redundancy theory, the capacity theory and dual-coding theory. Moreover, the schema theory, the Krashens Comprehensible Input Hypothesis and the ACT model by Anderson are also evaluated in the following part, attending to how information processes and learning happens. 2.2 Schema Theory According to Bartlett (1932), a schema is defined as a store of perceived sensory information in memory. He explains that schemata are formed and culturally regulated. As the number of schemata increases, one is able to recall an ever-larger amount of information in minimum time; adapting new information to an appropriate schema allows one to remember new and important ideas (Rumelhart, 1981, 1984). However consistency with an existing schema leads to understanding and inconsistency generally causes problems in the comprehension process. Schemata can impede and slow down reading comprehension and memory; details that are inconsistent with ones schema are deleted, or transformed, and rationalized to fit the existing schemata in the memory. On the other hand, schemata can also play a facilitating role when their details are consistent with the reading content; in this case cognitive processing occurs quickly without serious obstacles (Anderson, 1987; Van Dijk Kintsch, 1983). Researche rs usually compare reading of culturally-familiar and unfamiliar stories by students from different ethnic backgrounds. Results have shown that students comprehension of cultural stories is a function of their cultural familiarity with these stories (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993, 1995; Abu-Rabia Feuerverger, 1996; Adams Collins, 1977; Anderson Gipe, 1983; Anderson, Reynolds, Schallert, Goetz, 1977; Baldwin et al., 1985; Carrell Eisterhold, 1983; Lipson, 1983; Paul, 1959; Reynolds, Taylor, Steffensen, Anderson, Shirley, 1982; Steffensen, Joag-Dev, Anderson, 1979; Yousef, 1968; Zegarra Zinger, 1981). However, learners awareness of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes (according to Abu-Rabias above) a conflict between the minority and the majority. Second language learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as mentioned like a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993; Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1989). 2.3 The Single Channel Learning Theory The single channel theory is based on the principles that the human processing system has limited capacity in the central nervous system (Trave Benefits of Subtitles in English Learning Benefits of Subtitles in English Learning CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background All through the years, there has been an increasing emphasis on teaching English as an instrument for communication, and technology has played a critical function in facilitating authentic communication. The movement of language teaching objectives and practices has changed from the printed word and knowledge of language systems to the use and communicative value of the spoken language in the everyday setting (Vanderplank, 1993). In a sense, the efficacy of multimedia has drawn great consideration and is presumed, under the theory of adding an additional channel of media to send out a message, to significantly improve communication and comprehension (Dwyer, 1978). Multimedia technology (like TV, computers, networks, emails video cassette recorders (VCRS), compact disc ready-only memories (CD-ROMs) and interactive multimedia) aids the teaching technique of integrating real-life situations with the target language into the language classroom. In this meticulous setting, learners slowly expand their language acquisition by being exposed to the authentic environment of the target language. According to one of the most outstanding theories of second language acquisition, Krashen (1985) proposed that learners can learn a large amount of language unconsciously through ample comprehensible input. The Input Hypothesis, stated by Krashen, argues that the use of a target language in real communicative environments and the stress on rich comprehensible input by exposing the learners to the target language in the classroom facilitate their language acquisition. In other words, language acquisition only happens when comprehensible input is suitably delivered. In this respect, language teachers struggle to employ a wide range of teaching techniques to make authentic situations and to promote learners language acquisition. Many researchers have presented strong evidence that multimedia (like computers, video, and TV) have helpful effects on language learning due to rich and authentic comprehensible input (Brett, 1995; Egbert Jessup, 1996; Khalid, 2001). Results of these studies demonstrated the significance of the use of multimedia develops learners language performance in reading, listening comprehension and vocabulary recognition. One survey study by the American Association of School Administrators showed that 94 percent of teachers and supervisors believe that technology has enhanced students learning considerably. Similarly, many English-as-a-Second Language (ESL) teachers concur that educational technology presents many possibilities for progressing students language proficiency, including their vocabulary, reading, listening, and speaking. Similarly, television programs and videos have created a place in the communication of information and are powerful apparatus in improving language teaching (Anderson Lorch, 1983). Both TV and videos communicate not only visually through pictures but also aurally throughout the spoken word, music and sound effects. The subtitle, a key role on television and videotapes, is coordinated with the dialogue or narration of the programs audio track, expanding comprehension and understanding of TV programs and videos. Lambert, Boehler and Sidoti (1981) have asserted that the constant general movement indicates that information coming through two input types (e.g., dialogue and subtitles) is more systematically processed than if either dialogue or subtitles are presented alone. This result is in agreement with the dual-coding theory by Allan Paivio (1971), sustaining the usefulness of multiple-channel communication. In the same way, Hartmans (1961a) findings support the between-channel redun dancy theory which suggested that when information is redundant between two input sources (e.g., dialog and subtitles), comprehension will be superior than when the information is coming through one input form, (e.g., dialog). He also gave a description of redundant information as identical information from the visual and verbal stimuli. In this respect, Hartman completed that the benefit of the multiple-channel learning system is this: information coming from two information sources is more comprehensible than that through one. Information input through different sensory channels supplies receivers with additional stimuli reinforcement to guarantee that more complete learning happens. More explicitly, the additional stimuli reinforcement helps out learners in systematizing and structuring the incoming information. However, a contrasting theory, the single channel theory proposed by Broadbent (1958), states that human can only process information throughout one channel at a time. This theory assumes that the decline of learning takes place if the information is received through two or more sources. The learning is delayed when the multiple-channel presentation of information is used in the teaching-learning process. Along with this contentious viewpoint between the single and the multiple-channel presentation, an awareness of and interest in the use of multimedia resources have been increasing, like the presentation of subtitled materials. Today, language learning has turned out to be more available by implementing multimedia with spoken information and full visual context, such as subtitles. For instance, subtitled videos representing words and pictures in an aural and in a visual form are more probable to activate both coding systems in the processing than words or pictures alone. The dual-coding theory proposed by Paivio (1971) suggests that when pictures are added to the meaning, the number of signals connected with the message increases. Viewers then will be more probable to keep the message in mind. Therefore, the results of the past research appear to sustain the aspect that the use of subtitles causes multi-sensory processing, interacting with audio, video and print mechanisms. These information input foundations get the process of language learning better, improve the comprehension of the content, and increase vocabulary by looking at the subtitled words in meaningful and stimulating circumstances. In addition , a lot of teachers consider subtitles shed some new light on a better way of using various multimedia in the ESL classroom. When subtitled technology appeared more than 15 years ago, many educators quickly saw value in exploiting its potential in helping students process language in a different way and effectively by means of the printed word. (Goldman, 1996; Holobow, Lambert, Sayegh, 1984; Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, Neuman, 1993; Parks, 1994; Vanderplank, 1993). 1.1.1 Subtitle Subtitles, which are English written subtitles on instructional English-as-second-language (ESL) videos in this study, are the written version of the audio constituent that permits dialogue, music, narration and sound effects to be shown at the bottom of the screen on most televisions. There are two kinds of subtitles explained in general terms: the open subtitle and the closed subtitle. Closed subtitles refer to the subtitles that are not automatically visible to the viewer; however can be viewed by turning on through use of a remote control or an electronic subtitle decoder. By contrast, open subtitles are visible to all viewers without turning them on with a remote control. Subtitling is not only the main function of the TV but a positive function of video tapes. Video tapes offer subtitling by those who specialize in computer workstations. To make subtitles visible, an electronic subtitle decoder is obligatory, that is easily attached to a television set. Although it is not avail able in some areas of the world, subtitling technology is broadly accessible and draws great attention in the United States. In 1990, the U. S. Congress passed the Television Decoder Circuitry Act requiring that all new televisions, thirteen inches or larger, be prepared with subtitle decoder circuitry. The function of the decoder circuitry is to receive, decode, and show closed subtitles from cable, DVD signals and videotape appropriately. With reference to this regulation, the consumer is no longer required to pay for a separate decoder, when in possession of an applicable TV set. Therefore, thousands of people in the U.S. have access to subtitles without any trouble by pushing the button on the remote controls (National Subtitleing Institute, 1989). However, available access of subtitles on foreign film videos is still restricted in other countries, such as Taiwan and Japan, where external subtitle decoders are necessary for viewing. Subtitleing was devised initially for the hearing impaired. The statistics on the number of decoders sold confirm that more than half were bought for the hearing impaired who assert that decoders are helpful to them. Increasingly, the use of subtitles has also augmented among the non-native speakers who are motivated to improve their language learning. A study by Hofmeister, Menlove, and Thorkildsen (1992) discovered that 40 percent of people other than the hearing impaired buy the decoders, such as foreign students. To be explicit, the motive for this phenomenon is that subtitles show words in a motivating atmosphere where the audio, video and print media help viewers comprehend the unknown words and meanings in their context. However, subtitles have a great impact on comprehension improvement of specific TV programs and improve English language learning progressively. For the benefits of the multimedia approach, ESL programs began to incorporate subtitled materials into the curricula to help ESL students language learning. The focus on teaching techniques and on means of optimizing students comprehension of the second language has been of great concern through this multimedia. Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, and Neuman (1993) stated that the subtitled video is a new and promising approach for improving students vocabulary, reading comprehension, and motivation. Other researches have been conducted to inspect whether subtitled TV and video improve or obstruct students learning. The results have indicated that subtitled TV and videos are helpful for the hearing impaired, ESL students and disabled students (Bean Wilson, 1989; Borras Lafayette, 1994; Ellsworth, 1992; Garza, 1991; Goldman, 1996; Goldman Goldman, 1988; Markham, 1989; Nugent, 1983; Parlato, 1985; Price, 1983; Vanderplank, 1991; Webb, Vanderplank, Parks, 1994; Wilson Koskinen, 1986). Despite a large number of studies suggesting/demonstrating the benefits of the use of subtitles for the hearing-impaired, language learners, and disabled students, similar studies on the use of English subtitles in English teaching are still limited in Iran. Thus, there is great scope for additional examination into the potential use of subtitled television videos to enhance language teaching to English-as-Foreign-Language (EFL) students. The design of this research elaborates mainly on the language learning achievements. This study adds to the aforementioned to investigate the exposure of target language input to students through the presentation subtitled videos. This research focuses on the absence or presence of 10 English subtitled ESL instructional video episodes for a period of five weeks as a primary variable in an experiment to help determine the conditions for the improvement of Iranian college students learning English as a foreign language in Iran. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Many people in Iran have problems when it comes to communicating with foreigners in English. In addition, to get information from the Internet, having a fair amount of English knowledge is required. That makes accessing information a problem for those with limited English language proficiency. In addition, those Iranian students who wish to study abroad, language is the main problem since they have studied in Farsi for all their educational life, and thus adapting to a non-Persian environment is consequently very difficult. Students in Iran, start learning the Basic English at their secondary schools, however the curriculum structure, is based on teaching grammar rather than oral skills; therefore, most students oral communication skills are limited. . Moloney (1995) states that the emergence of English in the global market has resulted in the current ardor for learning English in developing countries. The need for English in Iran is unique. English is not only a required course for Iranian students, but also required and tested as part of major entrance examinations in Iran. These mentioned issues are going to be considered in proposing subtitles in videos and English learning movie solution. 1.3 Objectives of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of subtitled videos in enhancing university students language learning in Iran [English as a foreign language (EFL)]. In the study, the term language learning represents two types of performances. The first is students content comprehension of a particular video episode, as evaluated by a Content Specific Tests (CST) and the second is to investigate the learners vocabulary acquisition. 1.4 Significance of the Study Teachers professional development activities always focus on those types of teaching strategies that help students improve along with their path of learning process. As the research has been designed to discover the effectiveness of presenting subtitles on the movies on vocabulary acquisition and content comprehension, it would be of much significance if confirmed that this strategy works. Generally speaking, it can also been resulted that the finding of this research also could be added to the body of language teaching, learning and use of multimedia technology knowledge. The findings of this study can be share with the curriculum designers, EFL/ ESL teachers for the technology to be implemented in the classroom, materials developers for English teaching 1.5 Hypotheses This study focuses on English language learners performance on the Content-Specific Tests (CST) of vocabulary, and content comprehension of videos with and without subtitles. The researcher tested each of the following null hypotheses as she controls the initial differences of the participants in their general English proficiency. Ho 1: There is no significant difference on the scores of the content comprehension subtest of the CST between subjects watching videos with subtitles and those watching videos without subtitles. Ho 2: There is no significant difference on the scores in the content vocabulary subtest of the CST between subjects watching videos with subtitles and those watching videos without subtitles. 1.6 Research Question 1. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their vocabulary significantly? 2. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their content comprehension significantly? 3. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their English language proficiency significantly? 1.7 Definition of the Terms The definitions are given here to make sure uniformity and understanding of these terms throughout the study. 1.7.1 Subtitle Subtitle is the spoken words designed for the deaf and hearing-impaired people helping them read what they cannot hear. The terms subtitles and subtitles are interchangeably used in this research and are described as the translations of the spoken words to the written with the identical language shown at the bottom of the screen. 1.7.2 Closed Subtitle A subtitle of spoken words viewed by a special decoding device installed in the television set or a special decoder machine. 1.7.3 Open Subtitle A subtitle of spoken words that always is printed at the bottom of the screen. 1.7.4 Content-Specific Test (CST) An instrument designed by the researcher for this study used to measure learners overall comprehension in terms of vocabulary and content comprehension of a particular video segment. The CST includes the two subtests: vocabulary and content comprehension. 1.7.5 Content Vocabulary The vocabulary that comes into sight from the particular video piece viewed by the subjects 1.7.6 Content Comprehension Content comprehension that focuses mainly on the whole story script and test viewers comprehension of the particular information shown in the video 1.8 Limitation of the Study The researcher encountered difficulty in access to the samples of all Iranian population of EFL learners since the country is very huge and the numbers of English learners are so many. It was very hard to control teachers inside-class activities based on the methodologies presented to them. Non-generalizability of the findings to all English learners, especially ESL learners is another which is because the research is conducted in an EFL (Iran) context. The last but not the least limitation is the material choice since there are various types of videos. Therefore, the researcher had to restrict the video to an instructional video, connect with English since it is both with and without subtitle available as well as being suitable for the proficiency level of the participants. 1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter I introduces the foundation for this research, the purpose of the study, and definitions of key terms used throughout the study to diminish potential misunderstanding. Chapter II presents a review of the literature of the use of subtitles. It starts with a theoretical review of the cognitive information processing relevant to the single channel theory and the multiple-channel theory, with focus on the cue-summation theory, the between-channel redundancy theory, the dual-coding theory and the capacity theory. It then keeps on with a discussion of the schemata theory, the Comprehensible Input Hypothesis by Krashen and the ACT Model by Anderson. Subsequently, the relevant major research on subtitles for the hearing-impaired, disabled, normal reading ability, and language learners is offered. Chapter III outlines the method of hypotheses testing formulated in Chapter I. It also includes the research design, followed by a description of the subjects in this study, the treatment materials employed, the testing instruments, the data collection procedure, and the details of the data analysis applied. In Chapter IV, the analyses are performed to reveal the research hypotheses are explained in detail, with the quantitative results of these analyses and an interpretation of the results. The final chapter, Chapter V, summarizes the findings of the study in light of research hypotheses and discusses the performance of the subjects and the results of the analyses shown in Chapter IV. The conclusion interprets the effect of subtitled videos on EFL students language learning in relation to their listening and reading comprehension and their vocabulary. To synthesize the conclusion of this study, pedagogical implications, the limitations of the study and further research are presented. CHAPTER II 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Cognitive Processing Theories In many communities around the world, competence in two, or more, languages is an issue of considerable personal, socio-cultural, economic, and political significance. (Fred Genesee McGill University, WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT BILINGUAL EDUCTION FOR MAJORITY LANGUAGE STUDENTS). Historical documents indicate that individuals and whole communities around the world have been compelled to learn other languages for centuries and they have done so for a variety of reasons such as language contact, colonization, trade, education through a colonial language (e.g., Latin, Greek), intermarriage, among others (Lewis, 1977). The term learning has been considered in different ways by psychologists throughout history. Some behaviorists believe that learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of experience or practice. In addition Iranian students consider the radical-changing world as a situation of globalization that makes them study English as their second language and also a key to main language of scholarship. Thus Iranian government obliged students to start studying courses in English from early primary school through to university over a course of about 7 years. Despite this, reports show poor linguistic results; thus there is a requirement for an in-depth analysis of the teaching methods to understand the reasons for failure. Analyzing the process of effective learning, usually this is divided into two different components, first is individual interest in a topic and the second part is situational interest (Hidi, 1990). Individual interest is said to be the degree to which the learner or the reader is interested in a certain topic, subject area, or any special activity (Prenzel, 1988; Schiefele, 1990). Situational interest is explained as an emotional state aroused by situational stimuli (Anderson, Shirey, Wilson, Fielding, 1987; Hidi, 1990). The literature shows that the individual interest of the reader learner has a positive influence on text comprehension (Anderson, Mason, Shimey, 1984; Asher, 1980; Baldwin, Peleg-Bruckner, McClintock, 1985; Belloni Jongsma, 1978; Bernstein, 1955; Entin Klare, 1985; Osako Anders, 1983; Renninger, 1988; Stevens, 1982). However these researchers defined individual interests as the relatively long-term orientation of an individual towards a type of object, activity, or area of knowledge. This is why exciting tools such as movies seem to have positive effect on learning. (Schiefele, 1987). Schiefele also believes that individual interest is itself a domain-specific or topic-specific motivational characteristic of personality, composed of feeling-related and value-related valences. Then, individual interest is naturally generated by a text that constitutes a feeling of enjoyment or involvement. Individual interest motivates the learner to become involved in reading the specific subject matter. Fransson (1977) indicated that students who were interested in a special topic exhibited and showed deeper processing of a related text. Using free recall and extensive interviews, Fransson found that high-interest subjects made more connections between both different parts of the text and also between what was read and prior knowledge or personal experience. Benware and Deci (1984) and Grolnick and Ryan (1987) arrived at almost the same results, demonstrating that topic-interested We shall also call it intrinsically motivated students exhibited markedly greater conceptual comprehension of text content in contrast with non-interested and extrinsically motivated students. The process of the language learning is seen as a complicate cognitive skill. According to Neisser (1967), cognitive psychology considers that all information passes a process through which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, focused, stored, recovered and used. Gardner and Lambert (1972) are said to be pioneers in the investigation of socio-psychological aspects of second-language learning. They conducted numerous studies on the relationships of attitudes and social-context to the process of learning a second language. They proposed a distinction between these two models: integrative and instrumental motivation. The former is defined as a full identification by the learner with the target-language group and readiness to be identified as part of it. The latter indicates interest in learning L2 only as a tool to procure a better future through social mobility; in this case the learner does not identify with the target-language speakers. However integrative motivation is often considered more likely to lead to success in second language learning than instrumental motivation. Banduras (1986) and Zimmermans (1989). In particular, some of cognitive theorists believe that information-processing theory has the concept of capacity theory within itself. They suggest that the human capacity for learning a language is not regarded as an apart and disconnected from cognitive processes. According to Beck and McKeown (1991), most research on vocabulary leaning has focused on written text, probably because vocabulary research has developed under the umbrella of reading research. Having this fact in mind that arousing interests causes effectives in learning, is supported by a number of studies which have clearly indicated that television programs and movie videos may also be used as a motivational tool to affect teaching techniques in the field of language learning, especially in the area of vocabulary learning. For instance, Rice and Woodsmall (1988) found that children learn words from their first language when watching animated films with voice-over narration. Such learning can be further improved when the films are subtitled, i.e., when voice is accompanied by orthographic information. Schilperoord, Groot, Son (2005). Researches shows that in countries like the Netherlands, where almost 20% of all programs on Dutch public TV and commercial televisions are foreign, learners are provided with opportunities to learn foreign languages, especially since the 1980s, when the teletext was introduced. Similarly, Koolstra and Beentjes (1999) maintain that in the small language communities, a considerable number of television programs are subtitled, causing and creating the possibility of vocabulary acquisition not only in ones first language but also in his foreign languages learning process. Actually, the use of television programs and movie videos for educational purposes is not new. What researchers are interested in is how much learners can learn from films and television programs, and what factors influence the amount and kind of learning and how much. According to Reese Davie (1987 ) to address this concern, researchers have examined features like message structure and format characteristics to identify those which best facilitate learning. Reese Davie report studies which suggest that visual illustrations are most effective when they are accompanied by the script. Looking at socio-cultural factors attitude affecting in success of learning, however the combinations of traits explain the use that the learner makes of the available learning opportunities, all of which affect L2 learning. Wong-Fillmore (1991) indicates three main factors affecting L2 learning: the need to learn the second language, speakers of the target language who provide learners access to the language [cultural openness], the social setting that brings learners and target-language speakers into contact frequently enough that makes language developments possible [social openness, cultural openness, interaction between learners and target-language speakers]. Clement (1980) also places great emphasis on the L2 learners motivation and the cultural milieu. In Clements model, primary motivational process, is defined as the net result of two opposing forces—integrativeness minus fear of assimilation. Integrativeness refers to the desire to become an accepted member of the tar get group; fear of assimilation refers to the fear of becoming completely like the other culture and losing ones native language and culture. Fear of assimilation along with fear of loss of ones native language and heritage may weaken L2 learning motivation, especially in the countries like Iran where people are brightly proud of the history and heritage. Schumann (1986) suggests a model focusing on a cultural aspect of learning that he terms â€Å"acculturation,† that is, integration of the social and the psychological characteristics of learners with those of target-language speakers. Under this heading, he classifies the social and affective factors cluster both as a single variable. According to Schumann, there are two factors in acculturation [social integration psychological openness] namely, sufficient contact and receptiveness between members of target-language and L2-learner groups. There are clearly a number of common features between the above models. They all include the effect of social context attitudes (integrative or instrumental) and acculturation. A problematic social context usually affects L2 learning negatively, especially when the learners are minorities learning L2 as the language of the dominant group like it seems to have the same role with English language as a semi-dominant language of the world especially in contrast with the middle east languages. However, learners awareness of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes a conflict between the minority and the majority. L2 learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993; Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1989). Looking to the movies and TV programs as a motivational tool in learning a language, and based on a justification of the outperformance of students exposed to subtitled video theories are grounded in research either on the single channel theory or on the multiple-channel theories. Multiple-channel theories hold an overview of the cue-summation, the between-channel redundancy theory, the capacity theory and dual-coding theory. Moreover, the schema theory, the Krashens Comprehensible Input Hypothesis and the ACT model by Anderson are also evaluated in the following part, attending to how information processes and learning happens. 2.2 Schema Theory According to Bartlett (1932), a schema is defined as a store of perceived sensory information in memory. He explains that schemata are formed and culturally regulated. As the number of schemata increases, one is able to recall an ever-larger amount of information in minimum time; adapting new information to an appropriate schema allows one to remember new and important ideas (Rumelhart, 1981, 1984). However consistency with an existing schema leads to understanding and inconsistency generally causes problems in the comprehension process. Schemata can impede and slow down reading comprehension and memory; details that are inconsistent with ones schema are deleted, or transformed, and rationalized to fit the existing schemata in the memory. On the other hand, schemata can also play a facilitating role when their details are consistent with the reading content; in this case cognitive processing occurs quickly without serious obstacles (Anderson, 1987; Van Dijk Kintsch, 1983). Researche rs usually compare reading of culturally-familiar and unfamiliar stories by students from different ethnic backgrounds. Results have shown that students comprehension of cultural stories is a function of their cultural familiarity with these stories (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993, 1995; Abu-Rabia Feuerverger, 1996; Adams Collins, 1977; Anderson Gipe, 1983; Anderson, Reynolds, Schallert, Goetz, 1977; Baldwin et al., 1985; Carrell Eisterhold, 1983; Lipson, 1983; Paul, 1959; Reynolds, Taylor, Steffensen, Anderson, Shirley, 1982; Steffensen, Joag-Dev, Anderson, 1979; Yousef, 1968; Zegarra Zinger, 1981). However, learners awareness of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes (according to Abu-Rabias above) a conflict between the minority and the majority. Second language learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as mentioned like a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993; Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1989). 2.3 The Single Channel Learning Theory The single channel theory is based on the principles that the human processing system has limited capacity in the central nervous system (Trave